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The HL extension: global political challenges
Research connected political challenges through focused and flexible case studies.
The HL extension allows you to investigate contemporary global political challenges in depth. It is not a separate body of prescribed content and it should not be approached as eight additional theory chapters to memorize.
Instead, you will conduct independent inquiries using political issues, case studies, actors, stakeholders, concepts, evidence and possible courses of action. Your research should build on the Core and the three thematic studies.
The eight HL topic areas are:
- Borders
- Environment
- Equality
- Health
- Identity
- Poverty
- Security
- Technology
These topic areas overlap. Migration, for example, may connect borders, security, identity and poverty. Vaccine inequality may connect health, equality, poverty and technology. Cybersecurity may connect technology, security, sovereignty and interdependence.
The aim is to understand how these challenges are connected, why they are difficult to address and how different actors respond.
The most important idea
Do not prepare the eight topic areas as eight separate chapters. Prepare focused case studies that can help you analyse connections between different global political challenges.
A strong HL student does not simply know more facts. A strong HL student can select relevant evidence, explain political relationships and use case studies flexibly.
What are you required to research?
Official minimum
During the HL extension, you must conduct research on:
- at least two different case studies
- at least two different HL topic areas
The two topic areas and two case studies are minimum course requirements. The topic areas should be studied as overlapping rather than completely separate.
Recommended preparation
To prepare more flexibly, build a manageable bank of contemporary case studies that can be connected to several topic areas when the connections are genuine.
A useful preparation target is six to eight well-researched cases rather than a large collection of disconnected examples. This is preparation advice, not an additional official minimum requirement.
By the end of this page, you should be able to:
- explain the purpose of the HL extension
- distinguish a broad topic area from a precise political issue
- identify two or more relevant topic-area connections
- plan a focused case-study inquiry
- analyse actors, stakeholders and power relationships
- connect a case to the Core and thematic studies
- explain causes, impacts and responses
- examine different perspectives
- evaluate the successes and limitations of responses
- consider realistic possible courses of action
The eight topic areas
Treat each topic area as a political lens rather than a self-contained chapter. Open a topic to explore possible issues, questions and case studies.
Borders
Political spaces where sovereignty, territory, migration, identity, security, resources and human rights may meet.
Environment
Political questions involving resources, responsibility, environmental harm, inequality, development and collective action.
Equality
Questions of access, rights, representation and the distribution of political, economic and social power.
Health
Political challenges involving healthcare access, disease control, public trust, pharmaceutical power, state capacity and international cooperation.
Identity
How nationality, ethnicity, religion, language, gender, culture and belonging shape inclusion, exclusion, recognition, conflict and legitimacy.
Poverty
More than low income: poverty also involves access, opportunity, security, representation, resources and human dignity.
Security
Different understandings of state, human, community, environmental and cyber security—and tensions between them.
Technology
How technology redistributes power through communication, data, surveillance, artificial intelligence, misinformation and cyber activity.
Two ways to begin an HL inquiry
Begin with a topic area
Choose a topic area that interests you, explore its political dimensions and then select a focused case through which to investigate it.
Example. Begin with Health, then investigate vaccine inequality during COVID-19.
Begin with a case
Choose a contemporary case that interests you, identify its main political issue and then connect it to the relevant topic areas.
Example. Begin with the Rohingya crisis, then explore its connections to Identity, Borders, Security and Equality.
Both approaches are valid. The important requirement is that the inquiry becomes focused, political and supported by evidence.
Start with the political issue—not only the topic
A topic area is broad. A political issue is focused and identifies a political relationship, decision, conflict or challenge that can be analysed.
What is happening, to whom, because of whose decisions or actions, and with what political consequences?
How to build an HL case study
A case study is not simply a story or timeline. It is a focused political investigation in a specific context.
Define the political issue
Write the central political issue in one precise sentence. Avoid headings that name only a country, event or broad topic.
Establish the context and evidence
Record the location, time period, essential background, significant developments and accurate evidence. Background should support the analysis rather than dominate it.
Analyse actors and stakeholders
Identify the important state and non-state actors and the people or communities affected. For each actor, ask:
- What does this actor want?
- What kind of power does the actor possess?
- What limits that power?
- How does the actor interact with others?
- Whose interests or perspectives does the actor represent?
Connect the Core concepts
Use the Core concepts as analytical questions:
- Power. Who possesses influence, authority, resources or the capacity to act?
- Sovereignty. What role does the state play, and is its authority protected, pooled or challenged?
- Legitimacy. Which actors or actions are regarded as rightful, credible or acceptable—and by whom?
- Interdependence. How are actors, decisions and consequences connected across borders?
Identify the topic-area connections
Decide which HL topic areas genuinely help explain the case.
For stronger flexibility, try to connect the case to at least two topic areas where appropriate. Do not force an artificial connection simply to include another topic.
Explain causes, impacts and mechanisms
Identify the main causes and consequences, but also explain how one factor produces or influences another.
Do not stop at “poverty causes conflict”. Explain the mechanism: poverty may increase insecurity when unemployment, hunger or weak protection make people more vulnerable to recruitment by armed groups. This can weaken state legitimacy and make conflict more difficult to resolve.
Examine responses and perspectives
Investigate how states, IGOs, NGOs, companies, social movements and affected communities have responded. Ask:
- Why do actors understand the issue differently?
- Which responses have been attempted?
- Who benefited?
- Who was excluded or disadvantaged?
- What political interests shaped the response?
Evaluate and consider action
Judge the effectiveness of responses. Ask:
- What worked?
- What did not work?
- Why?
- For whom?
- Under what conditions?
- What challenges or unintended consequences emerged?
- What realistic course of action could improve the situation?
- Which actors would need to cooperate?
Use this case-study record
The case-study record, field by field
Use the template online — Coming soon · Download the case-study template — Coming soon
Study connections, not isolated topics
The following combinations are examples of how cases can be prepared across more than one topic area. They are not fixed or compulsory pairings.
Health + Equality
Vaccine inequality, unequal healthcare access, public-health emergencies
Borders + Security
Migration controls, the Rohingya crisis, maritime disputes, refugee movement
Environment + Identity
Indigenous land rights, Amazon deforestation, Arctic governance, climate displacement
Poverty + Security
Gang violence, food insecurity, conflict-affected livelihoods, weak state capacity
Technology + Security
Artificial-intelligence surveillance, cyberwarfare, misinformation, critical digital infrastructure
One case may connect to more than two topic areas, but students should select only the connections that genuinely contribute to their analysis.
Move beyond description
| Descriptive | Analytical |
|---|---|
| The UN helped. | The UN used coordination, agenda-setting and resource-mobilization power, but its influence was restricted by state sovereignty, limited cooperation and political disagreement. |
| Poverty caused conflict. | Poverty increased vulnerability to recruitment by armed groups because unemployment and weak state protection reduced alternative sources of livelihood and security. |
| The government introduced a policy. | The policy improved access for some groups, but limited funding, weak implementation and opposition from affected stakeholders reduced its impact. |
| The solution was unsuccessful. | The response produced limited results because the actors responsible for implementation lacked resources, political legitimacy and cooperation from local communities. |
Always explain how, why, for whom and under what conditions.
What strong HL preparation looks like
Strong preparation
- a clearly defined political issue
- focused and contemporary case studies
- accurate and relevant evidence
- specific actors and stakeholders
- explanation of interests and power
- genuine links between topic areas
- connections to Core concepts and thematic studies
- clear cause-and-effect reasoning
- different perspectives
- evaluation of responses
- realistic courses of action
- recognition of limitations and unintended consequences
- supported political judgment
Weak preparation
- memorized definitions of eight separate topics
- broad cases without a clear political issue
- descriptive storytelling
- excessive background information
- lists of actors without explaining their involvement
- random facts with no analytical purpose
- forced topic-area connections
- vague statements about power
- unrealistic recommendations
- no consideration of obstacles
- conclusions without supported judgment
How this preparation supports Paper 3
Paper 3 requires you to transfer your independent research to an unseen stimulus. Your case-study preparation should therefore be flexible rather than memorized as one fixed essay.
Well-prepared case studies help you:
- identify and analyse a precise political issue
- explain the involvement and power of different actors
- connect the issue to more than one global political challenge
- use Core concepts and thematic-study knowledge
- recommend a realistic course of action
- consider challenges, implications or unintended consequences
- synthesize evidence, perspectives and political judgment
Detailed question structure, timing, marks and writing guidance are covered on the separate Paper 3 assessment page. Go to Paper 3 guidance →
HL Extension preparation resources
HL Extension: Global Political Challenges
A student guide to the purpose of the HL extension, the eight topic areas, case-study research and the development of political judgment.
How to prepare Global Political Challenges for Paper 3
A practical preparation guide based on classroom and examiner experience, focusing on flexible case studies, mechanisms, actors, recommendations and evaluation.
HL case-study record
A structured template for recording a political issue, actors, evidence, concepts, perspectives, responses and possible courses of action.
Case-study index
A searchable record of cases and their connections to the eight HL topic areas — the resource card below opens it.
Resources for this page
Type and length first, then why it is worth opening.